The results obtained using these data are informative and, in some cases, startling. Using
data on NYC’s Stop and Frisk program, we demonstrate that on non-lethal uses of force – putting
hands on civilians (which includes slapping or grabbing) or pushing individuals into a wall or onto
the ground, there are large racial differences. In the raw data, blacks and Hispanics are more
than fifty percent more likely to have an interaction with police which involves any use of force.
Accounting for baseline demographics such as age and gender, encounter characteristics such as
whether individuals supplied identification or whether the interaction occurred in a high- or lowcrime
area, or civilian behaviors does little to alter the race coefficient. Adding precinct and year
fixed effects, which estimates racial differences in police use of force by restricting to variation
within a given police precinct in a given year reduces the black coefficient by 19.4 percent and the
ogy, to study questions such as whether police treatment of citizens impacts the broader public opinion of the police
(Miller et al., 2004).
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Hispanic coefficient by 26 percent, though both are still statistically larger than zero. Including
more than 125 controls available in the data, the odds-ratio on black (resp. Hispanic) is 1.173 (resp.
1.120).
Interestingly, as the intensity of force increases (e.g. handcuffing civilians without arrest, drawing
or pointing a weapon, or using pepper spray or a baton), the probability that any civilian
is subjected to such treatment is small, but the racial difference remains surprisingly constant.
For instance, 0.26 percent of interactions between police and civilians involve an officer drawing a
weapon; 0.02 percent involve using a baton. These are rare events. Yet, the results indicate that
they are significantly more rare for whites than blacks. In the raw data, blacks are 21.3 percent
more likely to be involved in an interaction with police in which at least a weapon is drawn than
whites and the difference is statistically significant. Adding our full set of controls reduces the
racial difference to 19.4 percent. Across all non-lethal uses of force, the odds-ratio of the black
coefficient ranges from 1.163 (0.036) to 1.249 (0.129)